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Even with all the additional new evidence, however, the basic pairing of typological comparanda remains what it was in The Singer of Tales – that is, the juxtaposition of ancient Greek epic with modern South Slavic “epic.” The Homeric Iliad and Odyssey of ancient Greek epic traditions remains the initial point of comparison, while the original evidence of the South Slavic songs collected by Parry and Lord “still has a claim to being one of the best comparanda.” And the basic question dating back to the original comparanda still remains: how are we to define the terms “epic” and “hero”? The comparative evidence comes from Eastern Europe, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Africa, and so on. It was left for others to extend the comparison to other relevant figures in other medieval traditions – as in the Old Norse Volsunga saga, the Middle High German Nibelungenlied, and the Old Irish “Finn Cycle.” Moreover, ever since The Singer of Tales, there has been an unabated stream of further comparisons centering on modern collections of living oral traditions. But it cannot depend – or at least it cannot fully depend – on diachronic analysis, which cannot independently account for historical contingencies. As in the case of the genealogical method, the historical method depends on synchronic analysis of the parallel structures being compared.
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That is why I describe as historical the comparative method required for the study of parallels resulting from intercultural contact. Diachronic analysis is in this case insufficient, since it cannot predict history. Any such contact needs to be viewed as a historical contingency, which requires historical analysis.
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This concept of Sprachbund can be applied to any situation where the structure of one culture is affected by a corresponding structure in another culture, whether by borrowing or by any other kind of influence. In terms of this concept, whatever changes take place in a language that makes contact with another language need to be seen in terms of the overall structures of both languages. One form of such contact is a linguistic phenomenon known as Sprachbund. The third comparative method, which I describe as historical, involves comparisons of parallels between structures that are related to each other by way of intercultural contact. As Meillet defines language, it is a system in which everything holds together: “Une langue constitue un système complexe de moyens d’expression, système où tout se tient.” In short, the genealogical method is fundamentally structuralist in perspective, The work of Meillet, who was a student of Saussure, exemplifies both these kinds of analysis, which are based on a structuralist understanding of language. While synchronic analysis views language as it exists at a given time and place, diachronic analysis views language as it evolves through time. That something is a structuralist method of comparison that depends on both synchronic and diachronic analysis of cognate structures being compared. What is really meant by this title, however, is something more specific than just any kind of comparative method. In the field of linguistics, such a genealogical method used to be called simply “la méthode comparative,” as we see in the title of a most influential book by Antoine Meillet, La méthode comparative. I describe this comparative method as genealogical because it applies to parallelisms between cognate structures – that is, structures that derive from a common source or proto-structure. The second method involves comparisons of parallels between structures related to each other by way of a common source.
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The question is, how to explain these similarities? In other ways, however, “epic heroes” are strikingly similar to each other, sharing a number of central features. Even within a single tradition like Homeric poetry, heroes like Achilles and Odysseus seem worlds apart. These constructs – let us call them simply “characters” for the moment – are in some ways radically dissimilar from each other. Points of comparison include Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Hittite cuneiform records Arjuna and the other Pāṇḍava-s in the Indic Mahābhārata and Aeneas in the Aeneid of the Roman poet Virgil. While recognizing these difficulties, this presentation explores the most representative examples of ancient poetic constructs generally known as “epic heroes,” focusing on Achilles and Odysseus in the Homeric Iliad and Odyssey. Even as general concepts, “epic” and “hero” do not necessarily go together. The words “epic” and “hero” both defy generalization, let alone universalizing definitions.